Account Abstraction allows developers to turn wallets into smart contracts. This enables features like gasless transactions, social recovery of accounts, and 'FaceID' login, making Web3 as easy to use as traditional banking apps while maintaining self-custody.

Layer 2s (like ZK-rollups) process transactions off-chain and submit compressed proofs to the mainnet. Layer 3s go a step further, providing hyper-specific app-chains that offer sub-cent transaction costs and near-instant finality for gaming and high-frequency trading.

DePIN (Decentralized Physical Infrastructure Networks) uses token incentives to build real-world networks owned by individuals rather than corporations. This includes decentralized GPU clusters for AI training, community-driven 5G networks, and high-resolution map data.

A modular stack decouples the core functions of a blockchain—execution, settlement, consensus, and data availability. This allows for massive scaling by letting specialized layers (like Celestia for data) handle specific tasks more efficiently than monolithic chains.